Executive Authority of Dîvân-ı Hümâyun During the Classical Period of the Ottoman Empire
Executive Authority of Dîvân-ı Hümâyun During the Classical Period of the Ottoman Empire
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Abstract
Osmanlı Devleti, Orta Çağ’ın sonlarında kurulmuş son küresel ve klasik imparatorluktur. Yeniçağ dünyasındakurumsal kimliğini kazanmış ve doruğa ulaşmıştır. Bu süreç içerisinde Osmanlı Devleti siyasi, mali, iktisadi veaskeri bakımlardan çok güçlü bir teşkilatlanma gerçekleştirmiştir. Özellikle merkezi yönetimin çok güçlü olmasınınistendiği bu yapı, tarihte eşine az rastlanan bir örnektir. Merkezi yönetimin güçlü olması, kuşkusuz çoğu klasikmonarşinin temel amacıdır. Ancak Osmanlı Devleti, merkezi yönetimi yalnızca bir monark olan padişahın yetkisindebırakmamıştır. Türklerin tarih sahnesine çıkmalarından beri varlığı bilinen kurultay ve dîvân geleneği, İslamHukuku ve devlet yönetim anlayışının benimsenmesiyle daha da kurumsallaşmıştır. Özellikle Abbâsî ve Selçuklukurumsal devlet uygulamaları bu konuda etkili olmuştur.Tipik bir klasik monarşi görüntüsü sergileyen Osmanlı Devleti’nde Dîvân-ı Hümâyun, teorik olarak padişahınuhdesinde bulunan yasama, yürütme ve yargı erklerini padişah adına, padişah ile birlikte ifa etmiştir. Terminoloji veuygulamada Dîvân-ı Hümâyun, “padişahın dîvânı”dır. Dîvân, devletin en tepesinde bulunan bir kurul-organ olarakOsmanlı Devleti’nin çağdaşı olan monarşilerde rastlanamayacak özellik, yetki ve niteliklere sahiptir. Bir yasamaorganı gibi çalışır; padişah kanunnamelerinin, emirnamelerin, fermanların hazırlanmasında etkindir. Bir yargıorganıdır; hem ilk derece mahkemesi hem de bir temyiz mahkemesi olarak dava dinler, hüküm verir. Ayrıca ırk,din, dil ayrımı yapılmaksızın Osmanlı tebaasından herkes bu dîvândan adalet isteme hakkına sahiptir.Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’un belki de en önemli yetki ve görevleri yürütmeye ilişkindir. Günümüz modern devletlerindekibakanlar kuruluna benzer biçimde görevler ifa etmiştir. II. Mehmed (1451-1481) dönemine kadar Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’abizzat padişah başkanlık etmiştir. II. Mehmed (Fatih) döneminden itibaren bu görev büyük oranda padişahın “mutlakvekil”i olan veziriazama geçmiştir. Devletin erken dönemlerinden itibaren toplandığı bilinen Dîvân, II. Mehmed ilebirlikte kurumsallaşma sürecine girmiş, Kanuni Sultan Süleyman döneminde (1520-1566) bu süreci tamamlamıştır.Bir yürütme organı olarak Dîvân-ı Hümâyun, pek çok yetki ile donatılmıştır. Devletin idari, iktisadi, mali ve askerimeselelerinin icraî karar ve uygulama organıdır. Söz konusu alanlarda bir bakanlar kurulu gibi devlet politikalarınıbelirler. Padişahın onayına bağlı olarak devletin merkez ve taşra teşkilatındaki yüksek rütbeli görevlileri atama yada görevden alma, savaş ilanı, barışa antlaşması yapmak gibi çok önemli kararlar Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’un yürütmefonksiyonu içinde yer alır. Ayrıca Dîvan devletin toprak rejimi konusunda da yetkilidir. Tımar arazilerinin dağıtımı vedenetlenmesinden padişah adına sorumludur.Dîvân-ı Hümâyun, klasik bir monarşide eşine az rastlanır bir bürokratik örgüt oluşturmuştur. İşinin uzmanı bürokratlardanoluşan ve “kalem” olarak nitelenen bu birimler, Dîvân’ın yürütme fonksiyonunun temel ögeleridir. Klasik dönem Osmanlı Devleti’nin çağdaşı Avrupa monarşilerinde dahi görülmeyen bir kayıtlama sistemiyle çalışan bubirimler, görev tanımlamalarındaki işleri uzmanlık ve profesyonellikle yerine getirmişlerdir.Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’un fonksiyonelliğinin ve etkinliğinin azalması, Osmanlı Devleti’nin duraklama ve gerileme dönemleriyleparalellik taşır. Tarihçilerin “yükseliş dönemi” olarak adlandırdıkları ve genellikle 1450-1600’lü yılları içinealan dönemde Dîvân oldukça kurumsal ve fonksiyoneldir. Ancak XVI. Yüzyılın sonlarından itibaren etkinliğiniveziriazamın dîvânı olan “İkindi Dîvânı” lehine yitirmiştir. XIX. Yüzyılın başlarına kadar varlığını ismen sürdürenDîvân, Sultan II. Mahmud’un (1808-1839) reform sürecinde tamamen tarihteki yerini almıştır.
The Ottoman Empire is the last global and classical empire established in the late Middle Ages. It has gained its corporate identity in the new age world and reached its climax. During this period, the Ottoman State achieved a very strong organization in terms of politics, finance, economy and military. This structure, in which the central government is desired to be very strong, is a rare example in history. Strong central government is undoubtedly the main goal of most classical monarchies. However, the Ottoman State did not leave the central government under the authority of the sultan, who was only a monarch. The congress and dîvân tradition, which has been known since the Turks emerged on the stage of history, became more institutionalized with the adoption of Islamic law and state administration understanding. Especially the Abbasid and Seljuk institutional state practices were effective in this regard. In the Ottoman Empire, which displayed a typical classical monarchy image, Dîvân-ı Hümâyun performed the legislative, executive and judicial powers that were theoretically under the responsibility of the sultan, on behalf of the sultan, together with the sultan. In terminology and practice, Dîvân-ı Hümâyun is “the sultan’s dîvân”. Dîvân, as a council-body at the top of the state, has features, powers and qualities that cannot be encountered in monarchies contemporary of the Ottoman State. It works like a legislature; It is active in the preparation of the sultan’s laws, orders and decrees. It is a judicial body; as both a court of first instance and a court of appeal, it hears and adjudicates. In addition, everybody, regardless of race, religion or language, has the right to demand justice from Dîvân-ı Hümâyun. Perhaps the most important powers and duties of the Dîvân-ı Hümâyun are the execution duties. It has performed duties similar to the cabinet of ministers in today’s modern states. Until the period of Mehmed II (1451-1481), Dîvân-ı Hümâyun was personally chaired by the sultan. Since the period of Mehmed II (Fatih), this duty was mostly transferred to the grand vizier (veziriazam), who was the “absolute deputy” of the sultan. Known to have gathered from the early periods of the state, Dîvân, entered the institutionalization process with Mehmed II and completed this process in the period of Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566). As an executive body, Dîvân-ı Hümâyun is equipped with many powers. It is the executive decision and implementation body of the state’s administrative, economic, financial and military issues. It determines the state policies in the mentioned areas like a cabinet. Depending on the approval of the Sultan, very important decisions such as appointing or dismissing high-ranking officials in the central and provincial organizations of the state, declaration of war, and making a peace treaty are included in the executive function of the Dîvân-ı Hümâyun. In addition, Dîvan is authorized on the territorial regime of the state. It is responsible for the distribution and supervision of the timber land on behalf of the sultan. Dîvân-ı Hümâyun formed a bureaucratic organization, which is rare in a classical monarchy. These units, which are composed of bureaucrats who are experts in their work and are described as “kalem”, are the basic elements of the executive function of Dîvân. Working with a recording system, which is not seen even in the European monarchies, which are the contemporary of the Ottoman Empire in the classical period, these units fulfilled their job descriptions with expertise and professionalism. The decrease in the functionality and effectiveness of the Dîvân-ı Hümâyun is in parallel with the stagnation and regression periods of the Ottoman Empire. In the period that historians call the “ascension period” and generally includes the years 1450-1600, Dîvân is quite institutional and functional. However, as of the end of the sixteenth century, it lost its effectiveness in favor of the “İkindi Dîvânı”, which was the court of the grand vizier. Dîvân, which existed until the beginning of the nineteenth century, took its place in history completely during the reform period of Mahmud II (1808-1839).
The Ottoman Empire is the last global and classical empire established in the late Middle Ages. It has gained its corporate identity in the new age world and reached its climax. During this period, the Ottoman State achieved a very strong organization in terms of politics, finance, economy and military. This structure, in which the central government is desired to be very strong, is a rare example in history. Strong central government is undoubtedly the main goal of most classical monarchies. However, the Ottoman State did not leave the central government under the authority of the sultan, who was only a monarch. The congress and dîvân tradition, which has been known since the Turks emerged on the stage of history, became more institutionalized with the adoption of Islamic law and state administration understanding. Especially the Abbasid and Seljuk institutional state practices were effective in this regard. In the Ottoman Empire, which displayed a typical classical monarchy image, Dîvân-ı Hümâyun performed the legislative, executive and judicial powers that were theoretically under the responsibility of the sultan, on behalf of the sultan, together with the sultan. In terminology and practice, Dîvân-ı Hümâyun is “the sultan’s dîvân”. Dîvân, as a council-body at the top of the state, has features, powers and qualities that cannot be encountered in monarchies contemporary of the Ottoman State. It works like a legislature; It is active in the preparation of the sultan’s laws, orders and decrees. It is a judicial body; as both a court of first instance and a court of appeal, it hears and adjudicates. In addition, everybody, regardless of race, religion or language, has the right to demand justice from Dîvân-ı Hümâyun. Perhaps the most important powers and duties of the Dîvân-ı Hümâyun are the execution duties. It has performed duties similar to the cabinet of ministers in today’s modern states. Until the period of Mehmed II (1451-1481), Dîvân-ı Hümâyun was personally chaired by the sultan. Since the period of Mehmed II (Fatih), this duty was mostly transferred to the grand vizier (veziriazam), who was the “absolute deputy” of the sultan. Known to have gathered from the early periods of the state, Dîvân, entered the institutionalization process with Mehmed II and completed this process in the period of Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566). As an executive body, Dîvân-ı Hümâyun is equipped with many powers. It is the executive decision and implementation body of the state’s administrative, economic, financial and military issues. It determines the state policies in the mentioned areas like a cabinet. Depending on the approval of the Sultan, very important decisions such as appointing or dismissing high-ranking officials in the central and provincial organizations of the state, declaration of war, and making a peace treaty are included in the executive function of the Dîvân-ı Hümâyun. In addition, Dîvan is authorized on the territorial regime of the state. It is responsible for the distribution and supervision of the timber land on behalf of the sultan. Dîvân-ı Hümâyun formed a bureaucratic organization, which is rare in a classical monarchy. These units, which are composed of bureaucrats who are experts in their work and are described as “kalem”, are the basic elements of the executive function of Dîvân. Working with a recording system, which is not seen even in the European monarchies, which are the contemporary of the Ottoman Empire in the classical period, these units fulfilled their job descriptions with expertise and professionalism. The decrease in the functionality and effectiveness of the Dîvân-ı Hümâyun is in parallel with the stagnation and regression periods of the Ottoman Empire. In the period that historians call the “ascension period” and generally includes the years 1450-1600, Dîvân is quite institutional and functional. However, as of the end of the sixteenth century, it lost its effectiveness in favor of the “İkindi Dîvânı”, which was the court of the grand vizier. Dîvân, which existed until the beginning of the nineteenth century, took its place in history completely during the reform period of Mahmud II (1808-1839).
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Volume
9
Issue
17
Start Page
1
End Page
36
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